Publications

Starting in 2026, the EU is gradually introducing a carbon import tax at the EU border (CBAM), to counter carbon emissions relocation to outside the EU. CBAM reduces this carbon leakage by about one-third. →

We introduce two novel tools to enhance our understanding of international trade. Through the trade cost index, we compute the complete trade costs within a value chain. With the new gravity model that also incorporates... →

Firms face various trade costs that affect their international competitiveness. These include not only direct tariffs on imports and exports but also less obvious indirect tariffs imposed at different points in the... →

Interest rates have been trending downward since at least 1980s in developed economies, including the euro area. In fact, real rates (the real rate is the interest rate adjusted for inflation) are now at historically low levels. →

This is apparent from a study by CPB and CBS on the economic interwovenness of the Netherlands and the European Union with China. The Netherlands and Europe benefit from trade with China, and vice versa. However, this trade also creates mutual economic dependence. →

Het effect van de huidige handelssancties tegen Rusland voor Nederlandse economie zijn op termijn beperkt. Bij een eventuele stop van de Russische energietoevoer kan Nederland indirect wel flink geraakt worden o.a. via internationale productieketens. →

The Dutch gross domestic product (GDP) is structurally 3.1% higher due to the trade benefits of the European Union. This makes the Netherlands one of the countries that will benefit most from the increased trade by the EU. →

In this CPB Background Document we investigate the use of the standard structural gravity model for trade policy analysis at the CPB. The model is intended for long term analyses of trade policy changes and is based on... →

Until recently, macroeconomic theory provided at most a small role for the financial system to influence the real economy. This changed with the collapse of Lehman Brothers in 2008 and the financial crisis which... →

We investigate the impact of the financial cycle on the effectiveness of fiscal policy. →